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Meanwhile, raged in Greece — Yugoslavia's southern neighbor — and the Yugoslav government was determined to bring about a communist victory. The People's Front coalition, headed by the and its general secretary Tito, was a major movement within the government.\
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The results of all these conflicts are almost complete emigration of the Serbs from all three regions, massive displacement of the populations in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and establishment of the three new independent states. Full name in the and languages, written in the see section for details. The primary political leader of the state was Josip Broz Tito, but there were several other important politicians, particularly after Tito's death: see the. Supported and pressured by and , Croatian leader and his party managed the creation of the Autonomous Region with significant internal self-government in 1939. The suppression by the state of nationalists is believed to have had the effect of identifying nationalism as the primary alternative to communism itself and made it a strong underground movement. The number of in Kosovo mainly Serbs was quickly declining for several reasons, among them the ever-increasing ethnic tensions and subsequent emigration from the area. According to the , recognised by representatives of all republics, the international community pressured Slovenia and Croatia to place a three-month on their independence. The reputation of both benefited greatly from their wartime exploits and decisive success, and they enjoyed genuine support among the populace. Both these demands were opposed by the West.

Almost NATO: Partners and Players in Central and Eastern European Security. In September 1991, the also declared independence, becoming the only former republic to gain sovereignty without resistance from the Belgrade-based Yugoslav authorities.\
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**Популярные категории** - Alexander attempted to create a centralised Yugoslavia. Prior to the collapse of Yugoslavia in the 1990s, Yugoslavia had a modern multicultural society.\
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It came into existence after in 1918 under the name of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes by the merger of the provisional itself formed from territories of the former with the formerly independent. The Serbian royal became the Yugoslav royal dynasty. Yugoslavia gained international recognition on 13 July 1922 at the in Paris. The country was named after the and constituted their first union, following centuries in which the territories had been part of the and. Renamed the on 3 October 1929, it was by the on 6 April 1941. In 1943, a Democratic Federal Yugoslavia was proclaimed by the. In 1944, the king recognised it as the legitimate government, but in November 1945 the monarchy was abolished. Yugoslavia was renamed the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia in 1946, when a communist government was established. It acquired the territories of , , and from Italy. Partisan leader ruled the country as president until his death in 1980. In 1963, the country was renamed again, as the SFRY. The constituent six socialist republics that made up the country were the , , , , , and. Serbia contained two Socialist Autonomous Provinces, and , which after 1974 were largely equal to the other members of the federation. After an economic and political crisis in the 1980s and the rise of nationalism, Yugoslavia along its republics' borders, at first into five countries, leading to the. From 1993 to 2017, the tried political and military leaders from the former Yugoslavia for war crimes, genocide and other crimes. After the breakup, the republics of and formed a reduced federation, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia FRY , which aspired to the status of sole to the SFRY, but those claims were opposed by the other former republics. Eventually, Serbia and Montenegro accepted the opinion of the about shared succession. In 2003 the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was renamed to. The union peacefully broke up when Serbia and Montenegro became independent states in 2006, while proclaimed its independence from Serbia in 2008. Main article: The concept of Yugoslavia, as a single state for all peoples, emerged in the late 17th century and gained prominence through the of the 19th century. Yugoslavia was the result of the , as a project of the Serbian Parliament in exile and the Serbian royal , who became the Yugoslav royal dynasty. After 1939 the Sava and Littoral banovinas were merged into the The country was formed in 1918 immediately after World War I as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes by union of the and the. Later, the government renamed the country leading to the first official use of Yugoslavia in 1929. King Alexander On 20 June 1928, Serb deputy shot at five members of the opposition Croatian Peasant Party in the resulting in the death of two deputies on the spot and that of leader a few weeks later. On 6 January 1929 suspended the constitution, banned national political parties, assumed executive power and renamed the country Yugoslavia. He hoped to curb separatist tendencies and mitigate nationalist passions. He imposed a and relinquished his dictatorship in 1931. However, Alexander's policies later encountered opposition from other European powers stemming from developments in Italy and Germany, where Fascists and rose to power, and the , where became absolute ruler. None of these three regimes favored the policy pursued by Alexander I. In fact, Italy and Germany wanted to revise the international treaties signed after World War I, and the Soviets were determined to regain their positions in Europe and pursue a more active international policy. Alexander attempted to create a centralised Yugoslavia. He decided to abolish Yugoslavia's historic regions, and new internal boundaries were drawn for provinces or banovinas. The banovinas were named after rivers. Many politicians were jailed or kept under police surveillance. The effect of Alexander's dictatorship was to further alienate the non-Serbs from the idea of unity. During his reign the flags of Yugoslav nations were banned. Communist ideas were banned also. The king was assassinated in during an official visit to France in 1934 by , an experienced marksman from 's with the cooperation of the , a Croatian fascist revolutionary organisation. Alexander was succeeded by his eleven-year-old son and a regency council headed by his cousin,. Supported and pressured by and , Croatian leader and his party managed the creation of the Autonomous Region with significant internal self-government in 1939. The agreement specified that Croatia was to remain part of Yugoslavia, but it was hurriedly building an independent political identity in international relations. The entire kingdom was to be federalised but World War II stopped the fulfillment of those plans. Prince Paul submitted to the fascist pressure and signed the in Vienna on 25 March 1941, hoping to still keep Yugoslavia out of the war. But this was at the expense of popular support for Paul's regency. Senior military officers were also opposed to the treaty and launched a when the king returned on. Army General seized power, arrested the Vienna delegation, exiled Paul, and ended the regency, giving 17-year-old full powers. The German Air Force bombed and other major Yugoslav cities. On 17 April, representatives of Yugoslavia's various regions signed an armistice with Germany in Belgrade, ending eleven days of resistance against the invading German forces. More than 300,000 Yugoslav officers and soldiers were taken prisoner. The occupied Yugoslavia and split it up. The was established as a satellite state, ruled by the fascist militia known as the that came into existence in 1929, but was relatively limited in its activities until 1941. German troops occupied and as well as part of and , while other parts of the country were occupied by , Hungary, and Italy. From 1941—45, the Croatian regime murdered around 500,000 people, 250,000 were expelled, and another 200,000 were forced to convert to. From the start, the Yugoslav resistance forces consisted of two factions: the communist-led and the royalist , with the former receiving Allied recognition only at the Tehran conference 1943. The heavily pro-Serbian Chetniks were led by , while the pan-Yugoslav oriented Partisans were led by. The Partisans initiated a campaign that developed into the largest resistance army in occupied Western and Central Europe. The Chetniks were initially supported by the exiled royal government and the , but they soon focused increasingly on combating the Partisans rather than the occupying Axis forces. By the end of the war, the Chetnik movement transformed into a collaborationist Serb nationalist militia completely dependent on Axis supplies. The highly mobile Partisans, however, carried on their guerrilla warfare with great success. Most notable of the victories against the occupying forces were the battles of and. On 25 November 1942, the was convened in , modern day. The council reconvened on 29 November 1943, in , also in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and established the basis for post-war organisation of the country, establishing a federation this date was celebrated as Republic Day after the war. The were able to expel the Axis from Serbia in 1944 and the rest of Yugoslavia in 1945. The provided limited assistance with the liberation of and withdrew after the war was over. In May 1945, the Partisans met with Allied forces outside former Yugoslav borders, after also taking over and parts of the southern Austrian provinces of and. However, the Partisans withdrew from Trieste in June of the same year under heavy pressure from Stalin, who did not want a confrontation with the other Allies. Western attempts to reunite the Partisans, who denied the supremacy of the old government of the , and the émigrés loyal to the king led to the in June 1944; however, Josip Broz Tito was in control and was determined to lead an independent communist state, starting as a prime minister. He had the support of Moscow and London and led by far the strongest partisan force with 800,000 men. The official Yugoslav post-war estimate of in Yugoslavia during World War II is 1,704,000. Subsequent data gathering in the 1980s by historians and showed that the actual number of dead was about 1 million. Main article: On 11 November 1945 were held with only the Communist-led National Front appearing on the ballot, securing all 354 seats. On 29 November, while still in exile, was deposed by Yugoslavia's , and the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia was declared. However, he refused to abdicate. Marshal Tito was now in full control, and all opposition elements were eliminated. On 31 January 1946, the new of , modelled after the Soviet Union, established six republics, an autonomous province, and an autonomous district that were part of SR Serbia. The federal capital was Belgrade. The policy focused on a strong central government under the control of the Communist Party, and on recognition of the multiple nationalities. Tito's regional goal was to expand south and take control of Albania and parts of Greece. In 1947, negotiations between Yugoslavia and Bulgaria led to the , which proposed to form a close relationship between the two Communist countries, and enable Yugoslavia to start a civil war in Greece and use Albania and Bulgaria as bases. Stalin vetoed this agreement and it was never realised. The break between Belgrade and Moscow was now imminent. Yugoslavia solved the national issue of nations and nationalities national minorities in a way that all nations and nationalities had the same rights. The flags of the republics used versions of the red flag or , with a in the centre or in the canton. Further information: The country distanced itself from the Soviets in 1948 cf. All the Communist European Countries had deferred to Stalin and rejected the aid in 1947. Tito, at first went along and rejected the Marshall plan. However, in 1948 Tito broke decisively with Stalin on other issues, making Yugoslavia an independent communist state. Yugoslavia requested American aid. American leaders were internally divided, but finally agreed and began sending money on a small scale in 1949, and on a much larger scale 1950—53. The American aid was not part of the Marshall plan. Tito criticised both and nations and, together with India and other countries, started the in 1961, which remained the official affiliation of the country until it dissolved. In 1974, the two provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo-Metohija for the latter had by then been upgraded to the status of a province , as well as the republics of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro, were granted greater autonomy to the point that Albanian and Hungarian became nationally recognised minority languages, and the Serbo-Croat of Bosnia and Montenegro altered to a form based on the speech of the local people and not on the standards of Zagreb and Belgrade. In Slovenia the recognized minorities were Hungarians and Italians. Demographics Main article: Yugoslavia had always been a home to a very diverse population, not only in terms of national affiliation, but also religious affiliation. Of the many religions, Islam, Roman Catholicism, Judaism and Protestantism, as well as various faiths, composed the religions of Yugoslavia, comprising over 40 in all. The religious demographics of Yugoslavia changed dramatically since World War II. A census taken in 1921 and later in 1948 show that 99% of the population appeared to be deeply involved with their religion and practices. With postwar government programs of modernisation and urbanisation, the percentage of religious believers took a dramatic plunge. Connections between religious belief and nationality posed a serious threat to the post-war Communist government's policies on national unity and state structure. After the rise of communism, a survey taken in 1964 showed that just over 70% of the total population of Yugoslavia considered themselves to be religious believers. The places of highest religious concentration were that of with 91% and with 83. The places of lowest religious concentration were 65. Religious differences between Orthodox , Catholic , Muslim and alongside the rise of nationalism contributed to the collapse of Yugoslavia in 1991. Government Marshal On 7 April 1963, the nation changed its official name to and Josip Broz Tito was named. In the SFRY, each republic and province had its own constitution, supreme court, parliament, president and prime minister. At the top of the Yugoslav government were the President Tito , the federal Prime Minister, and the federal Parliament a collective Presidency was formed after Tito's death in 1980. Also important were the general secretaries for each republic and province, and the general secretary of Central Committee of the Communist Party. Tito was the most powerful person in the country, followed by republican and provincial premiers and presidents, and Communist Party presidents. Slobodan Penezić Krcun, Tito's chief of secret police in Serbia, fell victim to a dubious traffic incident after he started to complain about Tito's politics. Minister of the interior lost all of his titles and rights after a major disagreement with Tito regarding state politics. Some influential ministers in government, such as or , were more important than the Prime Minister. First cracks in the tightly governed system surfaced when the worldwide. But in the following years, he dealt with the leaders of the protests by sacking them from university and Communist party posts. A more severe sign of disobedience was so-called of 1970—1971, when students in Zagreb organised demonstrations for greater civil liberties and greater Croatian autonomy, followed by mass manifestations across Croatia. The regime stifled the public protest and incarcerated the leaders, but many key Croatian representatives in the Party silently supported this cause, lobbying within the Party ranks for a reorganisation of the country. As a result, a new was ratified in 1974, which gave more rights to the individual republics in Yugoslavia and provinces in Serbia. Ethnic tensions and economic crisis The Yugoslav federation was constructed against a double background: an inter-war Yugoslavia which had been dominated by the Serbian ruling class; and a war-time division of the country, as and split the country apart and endorsed an extreme Croatian nationalist faction called the. A small faction of Bosniak nationalists joined the Axis forces and attacked Serbs while extreme Serb nationalists engaged in attacks on Bosniaks and Croats. Overall relative peace was retained under Tito's rule, though nationalist protests did occur, but these were usually repressed and nationalist leaders were arrested and some were executed by Yugoslav officials. Tito, whose home republic was Croatia, was concerned over the stability of the country and responded in a manner to appease both Croats and Serbs, he ordered the arrest of the Croat protestors, while at the same time conceding to some of their demands. In 1974, Serbia's influence in the country was significantly reduced as autonomous provinces were created in ethnic Albanian-majority populated Kosovo and the mixed-populated. These autonomous provinces held the same voting power as the republics but unlike the republics, they could not legally separate from Yugoslavia. This concession satisfied Croatia and Slovenia, but in Serbia and in the new autonomous province of Kosovo, reaction was different. Serbs saw the new constitution as conceding to Croat and ethnic Albanian nationalists. Ethnic Albanians in Kosovo saw the creation of an autonomous province as not being enough, and demanded that Kosovo become a constituent republic with the right to separate from Yugoslavia. This created tensions within the Communist leadership, particularly among Communist Serb officials who resented the 1974 constitution as weakening Serbia's influence and jeopardising the unity of the country by allowing the republics the right to separate. According to official statistics, from the 1950s to the early 1980s, Yugoslavia was among the fastest growing countries, approaching the ranges reported in South Korea and other miracle countries. The unique socialist system in Yugoslavia, where factories were and decision-making was less centralized than in other socialist countries, may have led to the stronger growth. However, even if the absolute value of the growth rates was not as high as indicated by the official statistics, both the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia were characterized by surprisingly high growth rates of both income and education during the 1950s. The period of European growth ended after the oil price shock in 1970s. Following that, in Yugoslavia an economic crisis erupted, and that as a product of disastrous errors by Yugoslav governments, such as borrowing vast amounts of Western capital in order to fund growth through exports. At the same time, Western economies went into recession, decreasing demand for Yugoslavian imports, creating a large debt problem. In 1989, according to official sources, 248 firms were declared bankrupt or were liquidated and 89,400 workers were laid off. During the first nine months of 1990 directly following the adoption of the IMF programme, another 889 enterprises with a combined work-force of 525,000 workers suffered the same fate. An additional 20% of the work force, or half a million people, were not paid wages during the early months of 1990 as enterprises sought to avoid bankruptcy. The largest concentrations of bankrupt firms and lay-offs were in Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia and Kosovo. Real earnings were in a free fall and social programmes had collapsed; creating within the population an atmosphere of social despair and hopelessness. This was a critical turning point in the events to follow. Breakup of Yugoslavia Though the 1974 Constitution reduced the power of the federal government, Tito's authority substituted for this weakness until his death in 1980. After Tito's death on 4 May 1980, grew in Yugoslavia. The legacy of the was used to throw the system of decision-making into a state of paralysis, made all the more hopeless as the conflict of interests had become irreconcilable. The Albanian majority in Kosovo demanded the status of a republic in the while Serbian authorities suppressed this sentiment and proceeded to reduce the province's autonomy. In 1986, the drafted a memorandum addressing some burning issues concerning the position of Serbs as the most numerous people in Yugoslavia. The largest Yugoslav republic in territory and population, Serbia's influence over the regions of Kosovo and Vojvodina was reduced by the 1974 Constitution. Because its two autonomous provinces had de facto prerogatives of full-fledged republics, Serbia found that its hands were tied, for the republican government was restricted in making and carrying out decisions that would apply to the provinces. Since the provinces had a vote in the Federal Presidency Council an eight-member council composed of representatives from the six republics and the two autonomous provinces , they sometimes even entered into coalition with other republics, thus outvoting Serbia. Serbia's political impotence made it possible for others to exert pressure on the 2 million Serbs 20% of the total Serbian population living outside Serbia. Serbian communist leader sought to restore pre-1974 Serbian sovereignty. After Tito's death, Milosevic made his way to becoming the next superior figure and political official for Serbia. Other republics, especially Slovenia and Croatia, denounced this move as a revival of hegemonism. The very instrument that reduced Serbian influence before was now used to increase it: in the eight-member Council, Serbia could now count on four votes at a minimum: Serbia proper, then-loyal Montenegro, Vojvodina, and Kosovo. As a result of these events, miners in organised the , which dovetailed into ethnic conflict between the Albanians and the non-Albanians in the province. At around 80% of the , ethnic-Albanians were the majority. With Milosevic gaining control over Kosovo in 1989, the original residency changed drastically leaving only a minimum amount of Serbians left in the region. The number of in Kosovo mainly Serbs was quickly declining for several reasons, among them the ever-increasing ethnic tensions and subsequent emigration from the area. By 1999 the Slavs formed as little as 10% of the total population in Kosovo. Meanwhile, , under the presidency of , and supported the Albanian miners and their struggle for formal recognition. Initial strikes turned into widespread demonstrations demanding a Kosovan republic. This angered Serbia's leadership which proceeded to use police force, and later even the was sent to the province by the order of the Serbia-held majority in the Yugoslav Presidency Council. In January 1990, the extraordinary 14th Congress of the was convened. For most of the time, the Slovenian and Serbian delegations were arguing over the future of the League of Communists and Yugoslavia. In turn, the Slovenes, supported by Croats, sought to reform Yugoslavia by devolving even more power to republics, but were voted down. As a result, the Slovenian and Croatian delegations left the Congress and the all-Yugoslav Communist party was dissolved. The that inevitably followed resulted in a rise of nationalism in all republics: Slovenia and Croatia voiced demands for looser ties within the Federation. Following the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, each of the republics held multi-party elections in 1990. Slovenia and Croatia held the elections in April since their communist parties chose to cede power peacefully. Other Yugoslav republics—especially Serbia—were more or less dissatisfied with the democratisation in two of the republics and proposed different sanctions e. The unresolved issues however remained. In particular, Slovenia and Croatia elected governments oriented towards greater autonomy of the republics under and , respectively , since it became clear that Serbian domination attempts and increasingly different levels of democratic standards were becoming increasingly incompatible. The Croat quest for independence led to large Serb communities within Croatia rebelling and trying to secede from the Croat republic. Serbs in Croatia would not accept a status of a national minority in a sovereign Croatia, since they would be demoted from the status of a constituent nation of the entirety of Yugoslavia. This section needs additional citations for. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. April 2016 The war broke out when the new regimes tried to replace Yugoslav civilian and military forces with secessionist forces. When, in August 1990, Croatia attempted to replace police in the Serb populated Croat Krajina by force, the population first looked for refuge in the Yugoslavian Army barracks, while the army remained passive. The civilians then organised armed resistance. Similarly, the attempt to replace Yugoslav frontier police by Slovenian police forces provoked regional armed conflicts which finished with a minimal number of victims. A similar attempt in Bosnia and Herzegovina led to a war that lasted more than three years see below. The results of all these conflicts are almost complete emigration of the Serbs from all three regions, massive displacement of the populations in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and establishment of the three new independent states. The separation of Macedonia was peaceful, although the Yugoslav Army occupied the peak of the Straža mountain on the Macedonian soil. Serbian uprisings in Croatia began in August 1990 by blocking roads leading from the Dalmatian coast towards the interior almost a year before Croatian leadership made any move towards independence. These uprisings were more or less discreetly backed up by the Serb-dominated federal army JNA. The federal army tried to disarm the territorial defence forces of Slovenia republics had their local defence forces similar to the Home Guard in 1990 but was not completely successful. Still, Slovenia began to covertly import arms to replenish its armed forces. Croatia also embarked upon the illegal import of arms, following the disarmament of the republics' armed forces by the federal army mainly from Hungary, and were under constant surveillance which produced a between the Croatian Defence minister Martin Špegelj and the two men, filmed by the Yugoslav counter-intelligence KOS, Kontra-obavještajna služba. Špegelj announced that they were at war with the army and gave instructions about arms smuggling as well as methods of dealing with the Yugoslav Army's officers stationed in Croatian cities. Serbia and JNA used this discovery of Croatian rearmament for propaganda purposes. Guns were also fired from army bases through Croatia. Elsewhere, tensions were running high. In the same month, the Army leaders met with the Presidency of Yugoslavia in an attempt to get them to declare a which would allow for the army to take control of the country. The army was seen as an arm of the Serbian government by that time so the consequence feared by the other republics was to be total Serbian domination of the union. The representatives of Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo, and Vojvodina voted for the decision, while all other republics, Croatia, Slovenia, Macedonia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, voted against. The tie delayed an escalation of conflicts, but not for long. Following the first multi-party election results, in the autumn of 1990, the republics of Slovenia and Croatia proposed transforming Yugoslavia into a loose of six republics. By this proposal, republics would have right to self-determination. However rejected all such proposals, arguing that like Slovenes and Croats, the Serbs having in mind Croatian Serbs should also have a right to self-determination. On 9 March 1991, demonstrations were held against Slobodan Milošević in , but the police and the military were deployed in the streets to restore order, killing two people. In late March 1991, the was one of the first sparks of open war in Croatia. The JNA , whose superior officers were mainly of Serbian ethnicity, maintained an impression of being neutral, but as time went on, they got more and more involved in state politics. On 25 June 1991, Slovenia and Croatia became the first republics to declare from Yugoslavia. The federal customs officers in Slovenia on the border crossings with Italy, Austria, and Hungary mainly just changed uniforms since most of them were local Slovenes. As Slovenia and Croatia fights towards independence, the Serbian and Croatian forces indulged into a violent and perilous rivalry. The forces, based in barracks in Slovenia and Croatia, attempted to carry out the task within the next 48 hours. However, because of misinformation given to the Yugoslav Army conscripts that the Federation was under attack by foreign forces and the fact that the majority of them did not wish to engage in a war on the ground where they served their conscription, the Slovene territorial defence forces retook most of the posts within several days with only minimal loss of life on both sides. There was a suspected incident of a war crime, as the Austrian showed of three Yugoslav Army soldiers surrendering to the territorial defence force, before gunfire was heard and the troops were seen falling down. However, none were killed in the incident. There were however numerous cases of destruction of civilian property and civilian life by the Yugoslav People's Army, including houses and a church. A civilian airport, along with a hangar and aircraft inside the hangar, was bombarded; truck drivers on the road from Ljubljana to Zagreb and Austrian journalists at the were killed. A ceasefire was eventually agreed upon. According to the , recognised by representatives of all republics, the international community pressured Slovenia and Croatia to place a three-month on their independence. During these three months, the Yugoslav Army completed its pull-out from Slovenia, but in Croatia, a bloody broke out in the autumn of 1991. Ethnic Serbs, who had created their own state in heavily Serb-populated regions resisted the police forces of the Republic of Croatia who were trying to bring that breakaway region back under Croatian jurisdiction. In some strategic places, the Yugoslav Army acted as a buffer zone; in most others it was protecting or aiding Serbs with resources and even manpower in their confrontation with the new Croatian army and their police force. In September 1991, the also declared independence, becoming the only former republic to gain sovereignty without resistance from the Belgrade-based Yugoslav authorities. Macedonia's first president, , maintained good relations with Belgrade and the other breakaway republics and there have to date been no problems between Macedonian and Serbian border police even though small pockets of Kosovo and the valley complete the northern reaches of the historical region known as Macedonia Prohor Pčinjski part , which would otherwise create a border dispute if ever Macedonian nationalism should resurface see. This was despite the fact that the Yugoslav Army refused to abandon its military infrastructure on the top of the Straža Mountain up to the year 2000. As a result of the conflict, the unanimously adopted on 27 November 1991, which paved the way to the establishment of operations in Yugoslavia. In Bosnia and Herzegovina in November 1991, the Bosnian Serbs held a referendum which resulted in an overwhelming vote in favour of forming a Serbian republic within the borders of Bosnia and Herzegovina and staying in a common state with Serbia and Montenegro. The referendum and creation of SARs were proclaimed by the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina and declared illegal and invalid. However, in February—March 1992, the government held a national referendum on Bosnian independence from Yugoslavia. That referendum was in turn declared contrary to the BiH and the Federal constitution by the federal Constitutional Court in Belgrade and the newly established Bosnian Serb government. The referendum was largely boycotted by the Bosnian Serbs. The Federal court in Belgrade did not decide on the matter of the referendum of the Bosnian Serbs. The turnout was somewhere between 64—67% and 98% of the voters voted for independence. It was not clear what the two-thirds majority requirement actually meant and whether it was satisfied. The republic's government declared its independence on 5 April, and the Serbs immediately declared the independence of Republika Srpska. The followed shortly thereafter. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia aspired to be a sole to the , but those claims were opposed by the other former republics. The United Nations also. In 2000, Milosevic was prosecuted for atrocities committed in his ten-year rule in Serbia and the Yugoslavia War. Eventually, after the from power as president of the federation in 2000, the country dropped those aspirations, accepted the opinion of the about shared succession, and reapplied for and gained UN membership on 2 November 2000. From 1992 to 2000, some countries, including the United States, had referred to the FRY as Serbia and Montenegro as they viewed its claim to Yugoslavia's successorship as illegitimate. In April 2001, the five successor states extant at the time drafted an Agreement on Succession Issues, signing the agreement in June 2001. Marking an important transition in its history, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was officially renamed in 2003. According to the Succession Agreement signed in Vienna on 29 June 2001, all assets of former Yugoslavia were divided between five successor states: Declared date of independence membership later renamed to 27 April 1992 date of the proclamation of FR Yugoslavia 1 November 2000 membership succeeded by Serbia on 3 June 2006 25 June 1991 22 May 1992 25 June 1991 22 May 1992 8 September 1991 8 April 1993 1 March 1992 22 May 1992 Succession, 2006—present In June 2006, became an independent nation after the results of a , therefore rendering Serbia and Montenegro no longer existent. After Montenegro's independence, Serbia became the of Serbia and Montenegro, while Montenegro re-applied for membership in international organisations. In February 2008, the declared independence from Serbia, leading to an ongoing dispute on whether Kosovo is a legally recognised state. Kosovo is not a member of the , but , including the United States and various members of the , have recognised Kosovo as a sovereign state. Yugosphere In 2009, coined the term Yugosphere to describe the present-day physical areas that formed Yugoslavia, as well as its culture and influence. The is linguistically a single language, with several literary and spoken variants since the language of the government was imposed where other languages dominated ,. Now, separate sociolinguistic standards exist for the , , and languages. Remembrance of the time of the joint state and its positive attributes is referred to as. Many aspects of Yugonostalgia refer to the socialist system and the sense of social security it provided. There are still people from the former Yugoslavia who self-identify as ; this identifier is commonly seen in demographics relating to ethnicity in today's independent states. Encyclopedia of World War I: A Political, Social, and Military History. Santa Barbara, California, USA: ABC-CLIO, 2005. Archived from on 16 May 2009. Retrieved 29 December 2010. EBRD Country Promotion Programme. Archived from PDF on 28 September 2011. Archived from on 15 October 2009. Hart; February 17, 2011. Arnold; Roberta Wiener January 2012. A Chronology of Conflict and Resolution, 1945—1985. New York: Greenwood Press. Iatrides; Linda Wrigley 2004. Penn State University Press. Bulletin of the GHI 1968: Memories and Legacies of a Global Revolt. Archived from PDF on 4 October 2013. A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. The World Transformed 1945 to the Present. New York: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 21 July 2006. Archived from PDF on 13 June 2010. Retrieved 14 June 2012. Retrieved 11 November 2011. The University of Edinburgh School of Law. Archived from on 18 January 2012. Retrieved 11 November 2011. Stanford, CA: SPICE, 1991. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co. The Struggle in Yugoslavia. Southern Social Studies Journal 16 Fall 1990 : 78—101. New York: American Council of Learned Societies, 1983. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
